Temple Architecture of Odisha: The Magnificent Kalinga Style

The key changes in economy and society from the Rig Vedic period (c. 1500-1000 BCE) to the Later Vedic period (c. 1000-600 BCE).

Economic Changes:

1. Shift in Primary Occupation:

   • Rig Vedic: Primarily pastoral and semi-nomadic. Cattle rearing was central; wealth was measured in cows (gomat). Agriculture was secondary, mainly growing barley (yava).

   • Later Vedic: Settled agriculture became the primary occupation. This was facilitated by the use of iron tools (axes for clearing forests in the Ganga plains, iron ploughshares) and knowledge of new crops like rice (vrihi) and wheat (godhuma) alongside barley.

2. Land Ownership & Importance:

   • Rig Vedic: Land ownership was largely communal or tribal. The concept of private land ownership was not well-developed.

   • Later Vedic: With settled agriculture, the importance of land increased significantly. The concept of private ownership of land began to emerge, although communal ownership likely continued in parallel.

3. Crafts and Specialization:

   • Rig Vedic: Limited occupational specialization. Basic crafts like pottery, weaving, carpentry, and metalwork (copper/bronze - ayas) existed. Chariot-making was prestigious.

   • Later Vedic: Significant increase in the variety and specialization of crafts. Texts mention numerous artisans like smiths, smelters, carpenters, weavers, leather workers, jewellers, dyers, and potters. This reflects a more complex, settled economy with agricultural surplus supporting non-agricultural populations. Iron technology (śyāma ayas) became more widespread.

4. Trade and Exchange:

   • Rig Vedic: Barter was the main form of exchange. Cattle were a primary medium. Gift exchange (dana) played a social and economic role. Trade was limited. Units like nishka might have been used as ornaments or units of value, but not standardized coinage.

   • Later Vedic: Rudimentary trade networks developed. Mention of the sea (samudra) and possibly sea voyages suggests wider trade. Units like nishka, satamana, and krishnala were likely used more consistently in exchange, though formal coinage was still absent. Proto-urban centers may have started emerging.

Social Changes:

1. Varna System (Social Hierarchy):

   • Rig Vedic: Society was largely tribal and relatively egalitarian. An early division based on occupation/colour (Brahmana, Rajanya, Vis) existed but was flexible and less hierarchical. The term Shudra appears late, possibly referring to non-Aryan or subjugated groups, but the rigid four-fold system was absent.

   • Later Vedic: The four-fold Varna system (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) became clearly defined, rigid, and hereditary. Brahmins (priests) and Kshatriyas (warriors/rulers) gained dominance and privileges. Vaishyas (commoners) engaged in agriculture, crafts, trade. Shudras were assigned service roles, often excluded from rituals. The concept of ritual purity and the beginnings of untouchability emerged towards the end of this period.

2. Political Structure:

   • Rig Vedic: Primarily tribal polities. The king (Rajan) was mainly a military leader, often elected or approved by tribal assemblies like the Sabha and Samiti, which held significant power. Kings received voluntary offerings (bali). Territory was less defined.

   • Later Vedic: Rise of larger territorial kingdoms (Janapadas). Kingship became hereditary and much more powerful. Elaborate royal consecration rituals (Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, Vajapeya) emerged to enhance royal status. The influence of popular assemblies (Sabha, Samiti) declined. A rudimentary administrative machinery and regular taxation system were developed.

3. Status of Women:

   • Rig Vedic: Women held a relatively respectable position. They could participate in assemblies (Sabha), compose hymns, receive education (e.g., Ghosha, Apala), and sometimes choose their husbands. Widow remarriage might have been permitted.

   • Later Vedic: Marked decline in the status of women. They were generally excluded from political assemblies and inheritance rights. Their participation in rituals became restricted, and the Upanayana ceremony was often denied to them. Practices like polygyny increased (especially among elites), and child marriage possibly began to appear. Texts increasingly subordinate women to men.

4. Religion and Rituals:

   • Rig Vedic: Worship focused on nature deities (Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya etc.). Rituals (yajnas) were simpler, often performed collectively or by the head of the household, aimed at securing material benefits (cattle, sons, victory).

   • Later Vedic: Gods like Prajapati (the Creator), Vishnu (the Preserver), and Rudra (later Shiva, the Destroyer) rose in importance. Rituals became extremely complex, elaborate, lengthy, and required specialized Brahmin priests. The purpose of sacrifice shifted towards maintaining cosmic order and enhancing the power of the sponsor (especially kings). However, philosophical speculation questioning rituals also emerged (in the Aranyakas and Upanishads).

5. Ashrama System:

   • Rig Vedic: No formal concept of the stages of life (Ashramas).

   • Later Vedic: The idea of the four Ashramas (Brahmacharya - student, Grihastha - householder, Vanaprastha - hermit, Sannyasa - ascetic) began to take shape, outlining stages of life for upper-caste men.

In essence, the transition was from a semi-nomadic, pastoral, largely egalitarian tribal society to a settled, agrarian, more complex society with distinct territorial kingdoms, a rigid hierarchical social structure (Varna), and increasingly complex religious practices.